4:9–12), Sabbath-keeping (cf. 14:5–6) and food customs (cf. 14:2–23). . Jewish beliefs in the empire in Paul’s day were diverse on many points, but most agreed on central issues such as the value of circumcision, Torah, and the temple for Jewish identity. E. P. Sanders challenged many earlier readings of Paul that assumed pervasive Jewish legalism, but the emerging “new perspective” has yielded a conglomeration of different solutions rather than a unified understanding of Paul.